Sprinting Part 1 – Mastering the Phases of Speed: Science, Skill, and Application

Sprinting is a fundamental component of athletic performance in nearly every field and court sport. We can define sprinting as the ability to run at maximum or near maximal speeds. We can further define this as the athlete who can project their body forward the fastest, AND maintain that speed for the desired duration of the specific sporting event or required distance. Yet, this skill is often misunderstood and poorly coached. Sprinting is not just about innate speed or genetic gifts; it's a trainable, coachable skill grounded in biomechanics, neuromuscular control, and motor learning principles. To develop truly fast athletes, coaches must first understand the mechanical demands and performance markers of each phase of a sprint.

The two primary elements of sprinting:

1. Stride Length- The distance the athletes COM (center of mass) travels between consecutive foot contacts. This element will drastically differ from one athletes to the next based on limb length, and the magnitude and direction of force.

2. Stride Frequency- This is the number of strides the athlete takes in a given distance or time. When the athletes applies force in the correct vector, their forward momentum will increase, thus their stride frequency will also increase.

   “The constant and correct application of force will generate a natural increase in velocity and stride frequency and will optimize acceleration.” (Téllez, T., & Arellano, C. J. (2021). The Science of Speed: The Art of the Sprint. Winning Dimensions Sports.)

This article explores the three primary phases of sprinting: acceleration, transition, and maximum velocity. For each phase, we will break down the biomechanics, neuromuscular demands, training methods, and coaching applications, supported by peer-reviewed research. This deep understanding equips coaches and athletes with actionable tools for enhancing speed.

The Phases of Sprinting: An Overview Sprinting is typically broken down into three overlapping phases:

·         Acceleration Phase (0–10 meters)

·         Transition Phase (10–30 meters)

·         Maximal Velocity Phase (30+ meters)

While these distance markers may vary based on the athlete's level, sport, and technique, these phases provide a useful framework for analysis and training. Acceleration emphasizes horizontal force production, transition represents a shift in posture and force orientation, and maximal velocity involves refined elastic and reactive qualities.

Figure 1- Phases of sprinting

Phase 1: Acceleration (0–10 meters)

Biomechanical Characteristics:

·         Forward body lean of 45 degrees or more

·         Ground contact times of ~0.20 to 0.25 seconds

·         High stride frequency with short stride length

·         Positive shin angles and low heel recovery

·         Foot strike behind or under the center of mass

Acceleration is the ability to rapidly increase velocity from a static or dynamic start. This phase is characterized by high rates of force development and substantial horizontal ground reaction forces (GRF). Morin et al. (2011) demonstrated that horizontal force application is the most critical determinant of sprint acceleration performance. Athletes must not only produce large amounts of force but also direct that force appropriately, primarily in the horizontal vector.

Neuromuscular Demands:

·         High concentric force output from gluteal, hamstrings, and quadriceps

·         Increased motor unit recruitment, especially fast-twitch fibers

·         Elevated metabolic cost and oxygen demand

Acceleration places high demand on the concentric strength of the posterior chain. The gluteus maximus and hamstrings, in particular, must coordinate rapid hip extension and knee flexion. This movement requires powerful initial muscle recruitment and is best trained through both resisted sprinting and specific technical drills.

Coaching Applications: Drills for acceleration should emphasize posture, rhythm, and force orientation. Examples include:

·         Wall drills and marching progressions

·         Sled sprints with moderate to heavy loads (up to 80% bodyweight)

·         Ground based starts, 2 point starts, falling starts (more on this in future post)

Coaching cues may include:

·         "Push the ground away"

·         "Punch the knee forward, drive the foot back"

·         "Keep the shin angled forward"

Figure 3- Sprint gait phases of interest (block takeoff, step touchdown, and takeoff) and a representation of step length, stance distance, and flight distance.

Maulder, P. S., Bradshaw, E. J., & Keogh, J. W. L. (2008). Kinematic alterations due to different loading schemes in early acceleration sprint performance from starting blocks. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(6), 1992–2002.

Phase 2: Transition (10–30 meters)

Biomechanical Characteristics:

·         Progressive torso rise to upright posture

·         Gradual increase in stride length and frequency

·         Decreased ground contact time (~0.16 to 0.18 seconds)

·         Force application begins to shift from horizontal to vertical

The transition phase represents a morphing of sprint mechanics, where the athlete moves from a purely propulsive posture to a more upright position suited for maximal speed. The ability to maintain force output while adapting mechanics is crucial here. Poor coordination or posture changes often lead to deceleration or wasted energy.

Neuromuscular Demands:

·         A hybrid of concentric strength and elastic stiffness

·         Increased reliance on intermuscular coordination and rhythm

·         Continued motor unit recruitment, with greater emphasis on stretch-shortening cycle dynamics

Coaching Applications: Effective transition phase drills focus on rhythm, posture, and coordination:

·         Sprint-float-sprint drills

·         Fly-ins with gradual accelerations

·         Bounding into sprint progressions

·         Load sprint + release drills

Coaching cues include:

·         "Let your hips rise naturally"

·         "Maintain shin alignment"

·         "Avoid overstriding"

Phase 3: Maximal Velocity (30+ meters)

Biomechanical Characteristics:

·         Upright posture with vertical shin angles

·         Maximal stride frequency (4.5–5 Hz) and length (~2.3–2.6 m)

·         Ground contact time decreases to ~0.09 to 0.11 seconds

·         Force application becomes primarily vertical

·         Emphasis on front-side mechanics: high knee drive, dorsiflexion, and arm recovery

In this phase, athletes utilize the stretch-shortening cycle to minimize contact time and maximize elastic return. According to Clark and Weyand (2014), the key determinant of top speed is not leg turnover, but the ability to apply large vertical forces in a very short time frame.

Neuromuscular Demands:

·         High-rate eccentric-concentric muscle action

·         Elastic energy return from tendons and fascia

·         High neuromuscular coordination and reflexive control

Coaching Applications: To improve maximal velocity, drills must emphasize relaxation, timing, and elasticity:

·         Flying sprints with varying distance build-ups. (20 yd acceleration + 20 yd flying sprint)

·         Wicket runs to promote stride rhythm and front-side mechanics

·         A-run progressions and dribble transition drills.

Coaching cues include:

·         "Run tall and bounce off the ground"

·         "Step over the opposite knee"

·         "Keep the hips high and relaxed"

·         “Run as if being blown through a wind tunnel”

Figure 2-McMillan, B. (2020, April 17). The altis kinogram method. SimpliFaster. https://simplifaster.com/articles/altis-kinogram-method/

A great graphic here depicting a kinogram from Altis and Stuart McMillan depicting the key landmarks in the gait cycle.

1. Toe-off: The last frame before the athlete’s support-leg foot is in contact with the ground.

2. MVP: The maximal height of vertical projection, as defined by the position where both feet are parallel to the ground.

3. Strike: Because of the relative difficulty in defining this position, we have determined that using the opposite leg is more efficient. The “strike” position is defined as when the opposite thigh is perpendicular to the ground.

4. Touch-down: The first frame where the swing-leg foot strikes the ground.

5. Full-support: The frame where the foot is directly under the pelvis—the toe of the foot should be plumb vertical with the ASIS of the pelvis.

   (McMillan, B. (2020, April 17). The altis kinogram method. SimpliFaster. https://simplifaster.com/articles/altis-kinogram-method/)
   

Integration into Training Coaches should organize sprint development around these phases while also integrating them within full-speed runs. A sample week of sprint training might include:

Monday (Acceleration Focus):

·         Wall Drills

·         4x sled sprints (50% BW)

·         6x10m sprints from 2-point stance

Wednesday (Transition Focus):

·         Sprint-float-sprint: 20m-10m-20m

·         4x20m fly-ins

·         Bounding

Friday (Max Velocity Focus):

·         Technical sprint drills (A-run, B-skip)

·         Moving Claw Series

·         4x flying 20m sprints with 30m build-up

·         Wicket runs and dribble progressions

There are numerous programming methods with sprint training. Depending on the sport, season, and level of athlete will ultimately determine the methods, drills, volume, and intensity. Working with a small group of athletes allows the coach to give more hands on teaching and critiquing within each drill, thus a closer eye can be kept on the correct kinetics and kinematics. Large group settings, such as in a team environment is a different animal and must be treated as such. Understanding the common denominator of the team and addressing these needs progressively will allow team sport athletes to make adequate sprint specific adaptations.

Developing speed requires more than simply running fast. It requires an understanding of biomechanics, training methods, and coaching strategy for each sprint phase. Acceleration, transition, and maximal velocity are distinct phases that must be trained with intention. By applying research-backed methods and individualized feedback, coaches can dramatically improve their athletes' speed potential.

This article serves as Part 1 in a multi-part sprinting series. Future installments will address sprint-specific strength, resisted sprinting, periodization strategies, and sprint error correction.

References

 Clark, K. P., & Weyand, P. G. (2014). Are running speeds maximized with simple-spring stance mechanics? Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(6), 604–615. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00174.2014

Haugen, T., et al. (2019). Sprinting at different slopes: Practical implications for change of direction speed and acceleration training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(6), 1495–1501.

Maulder, P. S., Bradshaw, E. J., & Keogh, J. W. L. (2008). Kinematic alterations due to different loading schemes in early acceleration sprint performance from starting blocks. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(6), 1992–2002. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e31818746fe

McMillan, B. (2020, April 17). The altis kinogram method. SimpliFaster. https://simplifaster.com/articles/altis-kinogram-method/

Morin, J. B., Edouard, P., & Samozino, P. (2011). Technical ability of force application as a determinant factor of sprint performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(9), 1680–1688. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213f560

Morin, J. B., et al. (2015). Mechanical determinants of 100-m sprint performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 115(5), 989–1000.

Nagahara, R., et al. (2018). Acceleration mechanics of world-class sprinters during the 100-m sprint. Journal of Human Kinetics, 62(1), 93–102.

Rabita, G., et al. (2015). Sprint mechanics in world-class athletes: A new insight into the limits of human locomotion. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 25(5), 583–594.

Téllez, T., & Arellano, C. J. (2021). The Science of Speed: The Art of the Sprint. Winning Dimensions Sports.